ECOLOGICAL MONITORING

Methods
Inventory of Flora and Fauna
Base Maps
Monitoring Proposal

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INVENTORY OF FLORA AND FAUNA (back to top)
The inventory of species sets the stage for the development of a monitoring plan that promotes analysis of ecosystem change. It is essential to carry out an initial inventory of the reserve for as many species as possible in order to establish a baseline reference for the ecosystem of the Molson Reserve. The acquisition of baseline inventories is costly and limited by the availability of skilled people. It should be coordinated and prioritized, and viewed as a long-term exercise (EMAN, 1999). It is important to note that one does not have to finish the inventory before monitoring can begin however, some parameters may need to be predetermined. Taking inventories is a long process sometimes requiring years to complete. It is a continuous process, separate from, but linked to, ecological monitoring.

Vegetation
Vegetation can be inventoried using a variety of techniques such as the line transect method where sampling is done on a series of lines in the study area, or the quarter method where the study area is divided into plots. Plant species can then be sampled and/or identified from quadrats within the plots (Goldsmith, 1991). Species can be indicated as being simply present but their densities should also be indicated by means of random sampling within the plots.

Mammals
It is essential to inventory the mammals of the reserve. This should be feasible as there are only about 30-40 species of mammals in this region (Bider et al., 1976). Of course, different mammals are detected in different ways, and the information that a researcher can gather varies between mammal types. It will be necessary to determine the parameters of the inventory. These parameters could include detecting for presence of a species, determining the density of each species, taking physical measurements of the animals, and/or capturing animals and storing them in a facility as vouchers. Unless specific studies are being carried out, it is unlikely that detailed inventories, including trapping and measuring animals, will be carried out on a regular basis. At the very least, the inventory must include detection of animal presence and their observed location. Further work can be done according to research interests.

Detecting mammals can be done by direct observation or detection of presence. Direct observations will be sufficient for certain large mammals such as deer and conspicuous animals such as grey squirrels, but is nearly impossible for smaller mammals. Scats can be used to indicate animal occurrence. Several scat measurements should be taken including location, amount, composition, etc. Other methods of detection include odors, tracks, carcasses, feeding trails, seeds or plant debris, dens, and nests (Wilson et al., 1996). Bider et al. (1976) used sand transects to monitor animal activity; this technique does not give animal numbers but detects animal presence. Sand transects involve laying out a line of sand near an area suspected to be used by animals, and then periodically analyzing it for tracks.

Animal capture will be necessary for small mammals. Knowing ideal target areas maximizes success in this endeavor. Trapping for specific animals such as shrews will require knowledge of their habitats and likelihood of presence in a given area. This is made easier by the fact that the Molson Reserve has a small number of habitats of relative uniformity. Small mammals can be captured with box, snap, or pitfall traps. Snap traps kill the animals so they should only be used when the animals are to be taken as vouchers or when research requires it. These traps resemble small domestic mousetraps. Box traps work well for small mammals, like chipmunks and shrews, and do not kill the animal. They can be baited and bedded but still must be checked often to avoid animal harm such as overheating or dehydration. Pitfall traps are used for very small animals that are not usually seen by direct observation. These traps can be simple containers buried flush with the ground that close when an animal walks over and falls into it (Wilson et al., 1996).

Bats are a special case of mammals mostly because they fly and are nocturnal. Direct observation can be done either during the day or at night. Daytime observation of bats requires knowledge of roost site locations. On the Molson Reserve these sites would most likely be tree cavities (Cameron, 1951), or buildings near the reserve. Direct observation requires researchers to detect and count bats, perhaps with the aid of binoculars and/or cameras. The best conditions for direct bat observation is right after sunrise or early afternoon with low wind and minimal cloud cover (Wilson et al., 1996).

Bat counts can be obtained during the daytime by disturbing them at their roosts and observing them as they disperse (Wilson et al., 1996). Several observers are needed for this technique and it can be facilitated using (video) cameras. Bats can be counted at night as they emerge from their roosts. They can also be observed in the winter as they hibernate (Wilson et al., 1996). Roosting bats can be captured by hand, by use of hoop nets or by placing a bucket or bag over a bat cluster (Wilson et al., 1996). Bats can also be captured in flight using a net as they emerge or return to the roost sites. If these are unknown, nets can be set up near foraging or drinking areas such as lake or marsh surfaces where flying insects occur (Cameron, 1951).

Birds
To obtain a complete record of birds, breeding, migrating, and wintering birds should be inventoried. These inventories will then allow the creation of a standard list of birds that use the area within a specific season. Following the birds' seasons is imperative in order to obtain reliable data. Breeding birds should be inventoried during May and June, migrating birds during September and October, and overwintering birds should be observed from January to February. Birds also vary in their detectability within the day. It is advised that songbirds should be counted starting shortly after dawn until mid-morning in order to obtain greatest output of song (Biddy et al., 1992). Bad weather can be a constraint for bird observations as songbirds are harder to see or hear in high-speed winds when trees are moving and make noise. As such, bad weather observations should be avoided.

There are many methods that can be used to obtain a bird inventory, such as line transects and point counts (Bailie, 1991). Line transects involve observers walking a fixed straight line and recording the birds that they see on either side of the line. Point counts are similar to line transects but involve counting birds from fixed points during a specified time interval. In both instances, unlimited distance counts can be used to compare relative abundance while methods involving distance estimation must be used where estimates of density are needed. For these methods, time duration is usually predetermined, ranging from 3 to 20 minutes with 5 to 10 minutes being the most common time length (Biddy et al., 1992). Another method would simply involve walking quietly through the reserve and recording species seen or heard and their location as well as any particular behavior.

Amphibians and Reptiles
An inventory needs to be done to evaluate the status of amphibian and reptile species over broad areas and to determine whether their populations are changing. These data are used to compare species richness among assemblages, for evaluating the importance of specific habitats and sites for maintaining species, and for making conservation and management-related decisions about amphibians (Heyer et al., 1994). Amphibians and reptiles are secretive and many have cryptic coloration that makes observation difficult. Amphibians are located in appropriate microhabitats such as in logs, throughout leaf litter, and under rocks. Snake activity is at its highest in spring and autumn, at which time migrations between hibernacula and foraging sites occur (Gibbons & Semlitsch, 1987).

A variety of techniques can be selected to obtain a species inventory for amphibians and reptiles (Jaeger et al., 1994). During visual encounter surveys (VES), the researchers walk through an area or habitat for a prescribed period systematically searching for animals. This method can be used to determine species richness of an area, to compile a species list, and to estimate relative abundances of species within an area. In addition, by repeating VES with mark-recapture techniques, density can be estimated. Quadrat sampling is used to determine differences among areas of interest at a given point in time and consists of laying out a series of small squares at randomly selected sites within a habitat and thoroughly searching those squares. Transect sampling involves tracking species numbers, relative abundances, and densities across habitat gradients. It is considered the best technique for studying elevation gradients or habitat gradients from lowland to upland. To specifically inventory frogs, audio strip transects can be used to determine relative abundance, species composition, breeding habitat or microhabitat use, and breeding phenology of species, by exploiting frog calls. Traps can be used to capture amphibians and reptiles but these have high costs and can cause mortality when weather conditions are extreme, when two or more incompatible animals happen to be caught and confined together, or when predators break into the traps (Fitch, 1987). As a rule, date and time of encounter, identification of specimen, size of specimen, sex, position in environment, activity of individual should be recorded when performing any research in the field (McDiarmid, 1994).

Arthropods
The Molson Reserve is likely to be the home of a diversified group of arthropods due to its many different habitats. To appreciate the biodiversity component of the Molson Reserve, arthropods should be identified, as they are by far the most diverse groups of animals and important contributors to biodiversity. The diversity and large numbers of specimens makes it nearly impossible to sample all arthropods and any sampling program involving arthropods is time consuming and expensive. In order to obtain a general inventory of arthropod diversity, the Biological Survey of Canada (1994) recommends five sampling methods that are easily standardized, cost and labour effective, and provide a diversity of high quality material.

The malaise trap collects flying insects by directing them with mesh panels to a trap head. The flight-intercept trap differs from the malaise trap by catching insects that fly down, instead of up, when they encounter mesh panels. Pan traps rely on insects falling or flying into a fluid preservative in shallow pans that are placed flush with a substrate surface. Pitfall traps are deeper than pan traps and they may or may not contain fluid. Behavioral extractors are the most practical and widely used methods of assessing the diversity and abundance of smaller, less mobile, cryptic arthropods in soil and litter. They involve using heat and desiccation to stimulate the animals to leave the samples on their own.

Comments
Since it is impossible to inventory all species immediately, priorities must be established based on cost effectiveness and anticipation of success (Table 1). Species of lower priority can be inventoried later or inventories can be postponed pending specific studies. It is recommended that volunteers, citizens from the community, and/or students be recruited for inventory projects. Local citizens may be familiar with species on the reserve and they could make important contributions to species lists. Furthermore, the Molson Reserve could present opportunities for students to carry out projects on the reserve that could provide valuable information.

BASE MAPS (back to top)

Base maps are tools that can facilitate monitoring change and relationships of a study area. They can be produced using GPS, GIS, and/or remote sensing, which allow the incorporation of many layers (e.g. hydrology, soil, vegetation). These layers can be superimposed and spatial associations between individual or groups of species, and other attributes of the landscape such as soil type, rock type, or land form can be determined (Clarke, 1986). By comparing base maps over time, one can monitor change. Production of these base maps can be time consuming and costly, however in return, they can prove very useful references for future work. Variables must be mapped from field observations, aerial photographs, or remote sensing, onto a base map at a useful scale. Soil maps can be particularly useful since they reflect interaction of the major abiotic controls (climate, hydrology, geology) and they are the substrate for primary production (Clarke, 1986).

MONITORING PROPOSAL (back to top)
Climate
It is important to monitor climate since variations can affect the range and growth rates of vegetation (Brubaker, 1988). Animal behavior is also highly dependent on climatic parameters such as seasonality, temperature, winds and precipitation (Wilson et al., 1996). It would also be expected that precipitation variation and extreme weather would influence the wetland boundaries of the Molson Reserve.

Climate data should include temperature, precipitation, winds, sunshine, atmospheric pressure, etc. As previously mentioned government weather stations exist near the Molson Reserve. Additional information taken by researchers is always welcome as a supplement to the regular flow of data. EMAN (1999) recommends measuring climate variables underneath the plant canopy and within the soil. This would be more accurate for measuring microclimate, which distanced weather stations cannot do. Since this is too costly to do regularly, microclimate monitoring could be done in association with specific projects as required.

Pollution
Various anthropogenic pollutants can harm soil, vegetation, and wildlife, including sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, ozone and heavy metals (Grigal, 1988). Pollutants can combine in precipitation or can be present in the air and contact plants as dry deposition. Air and precipitation should be analyzed periodically to determine pollution levels. Although the accumulation of pollutants in soil is usually small, any impacts are long-term. These involve a decrease in soil pH, harm to microorganisms, and subsequent harm to vegetation. Thus, vegetation decline can be caused by both direct effects of pollution on plants and indirect effects of pollution on soils (Grigal, 1988). The monitoring of atmospheric and precipitation chemicals can probably be achieved using government weather station data. Plant leaves can be analyzed in the laboratory for dry deposition.

Soil
Healthy soil helps provide clean air and water, bountiful vegetation, and diverse wildlife. Soil does all this by performing five essential functions (Brady, 1999):

• Soil regulates water flow by controlling rain and snowmelt. Water and dissolved solutes flow over the land or into and through the soil.
• Soil sustains plant and animal life. The diversity and productivity of organisms depends on soil.
• Soil filters potential pollutants. The minerals and microbes in soil are responsible for filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials, including industrial and municipal by-products and atmospheric deposits.
• Soil facilitates nutrient cycling. Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and many other nutrients are stored, transformed, and cycled through soil.
• Soil has both inherent and dynamics qualities. Inherent soil quality refers to its natural ability to function. For example, sand drains faster than clay. Deep soils will have more room for roots than soils with bedrock near the surface. These characteristics do not change easily. Dynamic soil quality refers to how soil changes in response to management techniques.

Wetland
Wetlands must be monitored as they provide a variety of ecological values and functions. Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology of the watershed. The combination of shallow water, high levels of nutrients, and primary productivity is ideal for the development of organisms that form the base of the food web and feed many species of fish, amphibians, shellfish, and insects. Many species of birds and mammals rely on wetlands for food, water, and shelter, especially during migration and breeding. Wetland microbes, plants, and wildlife are part of global cycles for water, nitrogen, and sulfur (Cole et al., 1996).

With the use of permanent stations, a series of photographs from the same point at different times could record the stages in wetland development. Wetlands are affected by seasonal changes such as the rise and fall of water level. Monitoring the hydrology of a site is easily done by measuring water depth using a gage or by measuring depth of ground water in a shallow well made from a PVC pipe (Cole et al., 1996).

Water quality can affect wetland health. Water quality can be determined by measuring pH, turbidity, temperature, and pollution. Soil qualities and plant and animal species are also helpful indicators of wetland status. A plant species list is helpful to identify wetland species. The US Fish and Wildlife Service has developed an indicator key for many species of plants. This list displays the degree of "wetness" associated with each plant (Cole et al., 1996).

Vegetation
Vegetation is one of the fundamental classes of natural resources (Clarke, 1986). After conducting vegetation inventories it is important to develop a procedure for periodic monitoring. Parameters should be monitored based on species composition. The most common parameters include:

• density (number of individuals per unit area);
• frequency (proportion of all samples within which a species occurs);
• standing crop (total dry weight per unit area);
• biomass (dry weight of unit tissue per unit area);
• productivity (change in standing crop or biomass per unit area per unit of time); and
• average individual size.

Mammals
Monitoring mammals is not a high priority on the Molson Reserve as those expected to be found are most likely to be common species. Those that could be monitored are rare, endangered, introduced, large herbivores or omnivores, and mammals that cross boundaries.

Large mammals require large habitats and would not be expected to occur in great numbers on the Molson Reserve. The ability to cross boundaries could influence their presence and for this reason they could be monitored. Monitoring the use of railroad tracks as a crossing for mammals such as deer and foxes would make an excellent study. Use of the sand transect method as mentioned previously could be the ideal research tool for this study. Lechowicz (1996) advises monitoring herbivores and omnivores, such as deer and raccoons, to ensure that they are not overgrazing. These could be monitored on the Molson Reserve, but very few deer have ever been observed there. As carnivores, foxes could be monitored as an indication of small mammal abundance.

A few species of bats may be considered rare in Quebec, not necessarily because they are endangered, but because they have not been well documented. For example, the red bat (Lasiurus borealis) has only occasionally been seen in Quebec. It is migratory and could use an area such as the Molson Reserve for parturition (Cameron, 1951). Some other mammals could be monitored as an indicator of biodiversity in the wetland, cut areas, and forests of the Molson Reserve. The marshland is suitable for muskrats and possibly beaver (Bergeron, 1977). These could easily be monitored since conspicuous animal signs are associated with these mammals (beaver dams, felled trees, burrows). Bider et al. (1976) have shown that the insectivorous masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) can be an indicator of forest crown closure, amount of woody debris for nesting, and "hotspots" of insect activity. The masked shrew is highly active from late June to late November, and could easily be trapped using box traps, or detected using sand transects.

Birds
Birds are important to monitor since they form a central and popular wildlife resource and are valuable indicators of the state of the environment, given that they are usually high in the food chain and therefore, susceptible to environmental changes (Bailie, 1991). There are a variety of methods used to monitor birds depending on the objective of the study. If the intention is to monitor bird diversity, the initial inventory can be repeated every two to five years and results compared over time (Quebec, 1996). Breeding bird populations can also be monitored using, for example, territory mapping. This technique requires some effort since it involves the recording of all birds heard or seen on a large-scale map. Species, sex, song, movement, and encounter of other birds are recorded on the maps (Bailie, 1991). Territory mapping can also be used to acquire the inventory of breeding birds but this method is not feasible for migrating or wintering birds. Measurement of breeding performance can be obtained from gathering information about the date of laying the first egg, the size of the completed clutch, and the survival of eggs and young between laying and fledging. At this stage however, in order to monitor a specific species, the results of the bird inventory are required. The inventory will allow discovery of any rare or indicator species that would require special attention. Since bird watching is a hobby enjoyed by many, incorporating these amateurs in bird monitoring schemes lowers operation costs.

Amphibians and Reptiles
From a herpetological point of view, the island of Ile Perrot is the richest in Quebec. Most herptiles having Quebec as their northern limit can be found on the island (Lovrity, unpublished). The Molson Reserve is particularly appealing with respect to herpetofauna. The reserve itself represents different habitats, which are essential for amphibians and reptiles. The flood plain serves as a breeding area for amphibians and reptiles, and it has a link with the upland forest. The woodland marshes can serve as a breeding area for amphibians and a feeding area for water snakes. The hardwood forest can act as a refuge for wildlife. The upland area may present the best conditions as an overwintering habitat for wildlife, with underground refuges deep enough to be below the frost line and located high enough to be above the flooding level.

Herptiles are an important part of the Molson Reserve; therefore, monitoring them is essential. In order to monitor changes in diversity and density, random sampling of herptiles should be repeated every few years. A key factor in the monitoring of amphibians and reptiles is determining the link between them and the reserve. Determining the features of the Molson Reserve that makes it attractive to herptiles is a priority. The initial inventory will identify any species on which one could concentrate monitoring efforts.

Arthropods
Monitoring arthropods, such as insects, is important as they dominate terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and are valuable indicators of ecosystem health. Their pervasive and ecological importance makes them valuable to evaluate disturbance or environmental impacts through assessments of mortality, sublethal effects, population changes, and modifications of community structure (B.S.C., 1996). Assessments can be obtained by random sampling. The high diversity of insects provides a potentially high resolution of change; as such there is an opportunity to detect relatively inconspicuous but nonetheless important changes in these systems.

Other indicator species
As has been shown with mammals and insects, certain species can provide information on ecosystem integrity such as biodiversity, change in habitat size and continuity. Biodiversity refers to the variety and density of species. It can be determined by long-term inventory comparisons and sampling (Anderson et al., 1992). Indicators refer to those species that are rare, that are on the top of the food chain, or whose habitat is known to include many other species (Salwasser, 1988). Indicators of ecological integrity generally respond to changes in stress (Freedman et al., 1992) such as human encroachment, fire, flooding, and climate variability. It is more cost-effective and less time-consuming to use indicators as a monitoring tool rather than monitor everything.

Invasive species
There are many invasive plants in Quebec, a number of which are found on the Molson Reserve. It is unreasonable to exterminate an invasive species from the reserve as many have been there for hundreds of years. Some managers may want to eliminate or control new invasive species, especially those that overpower native species and which are large or conspicuous enough to easily pinpoint and regulate. Perhaps the best thing to do with invasive species is to simply monitor them. The monitoring of invasive species could provide valuable information as to their effects on the dynamics of the ecosystem.

Habitat size and fragmentation
Habitats can fragment due to railroads, roads, paths, and encroachment of civilization. They can also change due to natural processes such as succession after a disturbance. The EMAN reserve at Lac Duparquet, Quebec, monitors the effect of fragmentation of the boreal forest on biodiversity (Roberts-Pichette & McKellar, 1996). Biodiversity in this case is measured by monitoring birds and small mammals. Succession is monitored on this reserve using permanent quadrats. On the Molson Reserve, there is great opportunity to monitor habitat change in the cut area as well as on the temporary wetlands that change from year to year depending on water levels and drainage. These habitat changes would affect the marsh forest habitat. The use of permanent plots in the cut area could be
established on the Molson Reserve to record succession.

Human Impacts
The reserve is located in a residential zone and human impact can be observed throughout the reserve. Monitoring these impacts would prove valuable. Species diversity can be monitored at the margins of the reserve in order to evaluate if human and domestic animal activity leads to a reduction in the diversity index. Humans have been using this reserve as a garbage dump for construction material and household refuse. On the reserve, there are scrap cars that seem to make excellent herpetofauna habitats. Before removing these scrap cars, it would be wise to monitor their impacts on the herptiles and to identify the best time to remove them without causing damaging effects. In the spring, when temperatures are low, sun-warmed sheet metal can provide suitable microhabitats for snakes. However, after the onset of warmer weather, the metal becomes uncomfortably hot in the daytime and is avoided by herpetofauna (Fitch, 1977). Automobile traffic impacts can also be assessed. Various animal species, such as frogs, may need to cross the road in order to reach required habitats on the other side of the reserve.

Comments
Since it is impossible to monitor all that has been mentioned, priorities must be established based on cost effectiveness and relative expectation of success. A monitoring timeframe should be adopted, even if it is subject to change. Ecological monitoring is usually done on time scales of more than 25 years since changes in climate, atmosphere, and tree growth can only be detected in the long term (Cole, 1996). Methodology should remain consistent with previous studies to compare results and detect change. Managers should attempt to monitor in such a way that minimum damage be done to the ecosystem. Rotation of sampling plots and staggering of monitoring schedules would dampen the impact of human presence on the reserve. It is recommended that undergraduate or graduate students become involved in monitoring studies. This involvement would benefit students by providing them with education and experience and would also mitigate some of the monetary pressure felt by managers of the reserve.